Ronald Reagon Essay Example For Students

Ronald Reagon Essay Ronald Reagans Space Shuttle ChallengerSince the administration of George Washington, the individuals of The United States have gone to the president in the midst of trouble to get affirmation and expectation. Kurt Ritter remarks on President Reagans address to the country given on January 28, 1986 saying, Perhaps no president could have satisfied the countrys need to grieve and, at that point, to start to mend as dexterously as Ronald Reagan (Ritter, 3). On that morning the space transport Challenger viciously detonated while the country observed live broadcast inclusion of the buses dispatch. President Reagan was booked to give his State of the Union Address on that date, yet rather he connected the nation in this season of grieving. He talked from his oval office to devastated instructors, kids, NASA Space Engineers, and the whole nation. President Reagans response to the deplorability of the challenger guided the United States out of despondency and into another light of expectat ion behind seven fallen legends. In this exposition I will show that Reagan gave our nation another light of expectation through his accentuation on Pathos yet in addition joining Ethos and Logos in this vital introduction. There is no uncertainty that the when the President of the United States talks everybody tunes in to what he needs to state. This validity makes the Ethos of Reagans Speech practically unbeatable. As referenced Reagan was booked to give a State of the Union Address to our nation on the night of January 28, 1986. Rather, he delayed it, in light of the fact that the account of the day was catastrophe. Here he needed to give a peppy discourse about America pushing forward. It just didnt fit. It appeared in harmonious (Weinraub). He indicated the nation that his need is the feelings of his kin by, without precedent for history, deferring on the State of the Union discourse so as to examine the recent development. This reinforced the noteworthiness of his contention t remendously. He compared the space explorers to pioneers and expressed in his discourse that They had an exceptional elegance, that unique soul that says, Give me a test and Ill meet it with bliss. With this he offers to the otherworldly side of his crowd utilizing the word elegance to portray the fallen. Once more, The president closed by joining the countries distress to Gods effortlessness (Ritter, 4). He said As they arranged for there venture and waved farewell and slipped the morose obligations of earth to contact the essence of God.' Reagans utilization of symbolism, gave the individuals of the United States trust that there friends and family are currently with God and gave them trust in a more promising time to come. President Reagan tolerably utilized the intrigue to logos in his discourse yet there were a couple of focuses that it was applicable. Logos was utilized to give the nation foundation data on the space program when he said Nineteen years back, nearly to the day, we lost three space travelers on the ground. In any case, weve never lost a space explorer in flight; weve never had a catastrophe like this. He expressed this data to pass on to the country that these sorts of catastrophes don't happen regularly in our space program. He needed to facilitate their brains of the idea this would be a common issue. He fortified the people groups support even furthur for the space program by saying that for a long time the space program has been astonishing the nation with its accomplishments. Reagan expressed an incident or authentic occasion that happened in his discourse as On this day 390 years back, the extraordinary pioneer Sir Francis Drake passed on board transport off the shoreline of Pan ama. He compared the devotion and pioneer endeavors of Drake to those of the perished space explorers. The president utilized the logos advance to reinforce the ethos and poignancy bid with realities and authentic information. Be that as it may, this intrigue added to the response of the crowd toward restoring their feelings toward a progressively steady state. .u59a8322938ebbb488edcca670eb6cdf2 , .u59a8322938ebbb488edcca670eb6cdf2 .postImageUrl , .u59a8322938ebbb488edcca670eb6cdf2 .focused content territory { min-stature: 80px; position: relative; } .u59a8322938ebbb488edcca670eb6cdf2 , .u59a8322938ebbb488edcca670eb6cdf2:hover , .u59a8322938ebbb488edcca670eb6cdf2:visited , .u59a8322938ebbb488edcca670eb6cdf2:active { border:0!important; } .u59a8322938ebbb488edcca670eb6cdf2 .clearfix:after { content: ; show: table; clear: both; } .u59a8322938ebbb488edcca670eb6cdf2 { show: square; change: foundation shading 250ms; webkit-progress: foundation shading 250ms; width: 100%; mistiness: 1; change: darkness 250ms; webkit-progress: murkiness 250ms; foundation shading: #95A5A6; } .u59a8322938ebbb488edcca670eb6cdf2:active , .u59a8322938ebbb488edcca670eb6cdf2:hover { haziness: 1; progress: obscurity 250ms; webkit-progress: obscurity 250ms; foundation shading: #2C3E50; } .u59a8322938ebbb488edcca670eb6cdf2 .focused content region { width: 100%; position: re lative; } .u59a8322938ebbb488edcca670eb6cdf2 .ctaText { outskirt base: 0 strong #fff; shading: #2980B9; text dimension: 16px; textual style weight: intense; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; text-beautification: underline; } .u59a8322938ebbb488edcca670eb6cdf2 .postTitle { shading: #FFFFFF; text dimension: 16px; text style weight: 600; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; width: 100%; } .u59a8322938ebbb488edcca670eb6cdf2 .ctaButton { foundation shading: #7F8C8D!important; shading: #2980B9; fringe: none; fringe span: 3px; box-shadow: none; text dimension: 14px; text style weight: striking; line-tallness: 26px; moz-fringe range: 3px; text-adjust: focus; text-improvement: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-tallness: 80px; foundation: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/modules/intelly-related-posts/resources/pictures/straightforward arrow.png)no-rehash; position: total; right: 0; top: 0; } .u59a8322938ebbb488edcca670eb6cdf2:hover .ctaButton { foundation shading: #34495E!important; } .u59a8322938ebb b488edcca670eb6cdf2 .focused content { show: table; tallness: 80px; cushioning left: 18px; top: 0; } .u59a8322938ebbb488edcca670eb6cdf2-content { show: table-cell; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; cushioning right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-adjust: center; width: 100%; } .u59a8322938ebbb488edcca670eb6cdf2:after { content: ; show: square; clear: both; } READ: Aztecs (430 words) EssayGiven the circumstance, a national disaster, and the tone of President Reagans discourse, the primary intrigue to the crowd is tenderness. After Reagan portrayed the purpose behind his addressing the country on that night he promptly started to depict the feelings of the day. He delicately shouted, Today is a day for grieving and recalling. The awfulness of the Challenger was an upsetting dependent upon all and he expressed to the country, in this sentence, the country would grieve together and that nobody individual would remain solitary in their distresses. By commenting that he and his better half had been tormented to the center by the fiasco, Mr. Reagan built up an elegiac tone (Apple). Through his own association, he demonstrated the country that it was worthy to be passionate about what had occurred. He announced the mishap as really and national misfortune. One of the travelers locally available the Challenger was an educator named Christa McAulliffe and in light of the fact that her quality there was an uncommonly wide enthusiasm for the space program, especially among school understudies (Ritter, 4). Later in the discourse President Reagan tended to the schoolchildren of America legitimately. I realize it is difficult to comprehend, he let them know, yet now and again agonizing things like this occur (Ritter, 4). At that point In a genuine, quiet way, he bestowed the occasions decrease: Its all piece of the procedure of investigation and revelation. Its every one of the a piece of taking risks and growing keeps an eye on skylines. The future doesnt have a place with the t imid; it has a place with the bold (Ritter, 4). He disclosed to the kids the truth and afterward requested that they be fearless and not to become cowardly. He later gave the country a feeling of trust later on by declaring that nothing closes here. Reagans discourse the evening of January 28, 1986 drastically ventured out joining the nation in its melancholy (Ritter, 4). Ronald Reagan connected with the schoolchildren of America and every other resident of the United States to guide them in time of catastrophe. He offered would like to the country through enthusiastic and profound reference. He was viable in passing on his message however the manner in which his musings were composed was to some degree insufficient. His discourse is disorderly, and he could have requested his musings better. More critically than disruption however, Ronald Reagan connected with a country that required him as there president. He gave the individuals of the United States expectation and Reassurance, a n errand that the President has been relied upon to do since the start of our nation. CitationsApple, R.W. Jr. President As Healer. The New York Times 28 Jan. 1986:A2. Ritter, Kurt, and David Heary. Ronald Reagan: The Great Communicator. Connecticut: Greenwood, 1992. Sloan, Thomas O. ed. Specialized Communication New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. Weinraub, Bernard Reagan Postpones State of Union Speech. The New York Times 29 Jan. 1986:A9.

Human Organ Donation Opinion Paper Essay Example for Free

Human Organ Donation Opinion Paper Essay Organ Transplants Ordinarily there are horrendous mishaps where individuals become so harmed that their organs neglect to work. Or on the other hand their organs have sufficiently had manhandle and conclude that it’s time to surrender. Well this would all be able to be fixed utilizing organs from others who have passed on however their organs or that one specific organ is unblemished in light of the fact that they kicked the bucket of different causes. Organ transplanting is extraordinary to the point that a few people have even assumed control over it to sell and transplant organs, which isn't the most ideal approach to do this. Organ transplanting has changed the world generally advantageous, be that as it may, some may inquire as to why organ transplanting or what are the advantages to this? Well there are numerous advantages! First thing to know is that there are a few distinct sorts of transplants. These incorporate heart, liver, kidneys, lungs, and all the significant organs. On the off chance that one is experiencing a dangerous coronary illness or has a bombing heart, and normal medical procedure and standard treatment do not have any significant bearing anymore, the specialists would now be able to embed another heart so the patient has more opportunity to carry on with their life. How cool is that?! This method should be possible with pretty much every organ in the human body! On the off chance that you are asking why you have to know this, it’s in light of the fact that you do. Some time or another it might be you on that activity table getting another lung or another heart. In all actuality everybody is a potential objective for organ disappointment and on the off chance that you are progressively mindful of what's going on around you, perhaps you will be additionally understanding when it conceivably transpires. There are choices nonetheless. One might be, as out of sight this may sound, a criminal who has been harmed in a heist. He might not have any desire to go to the medical clinic since he will be seen and gotten. Along these lines he goes to the bootleg market for organs. Despite the fact that the organs here are somewhat more unsanitary, they can be embedded in a temporary activity room. The explanation there is an organ underground market is because of the sole reality that individuals need cash. They will sell their unneeded organs (kidneys for instance) for cash. What's more, in the event that you live in the ghettos of Brazil, where most of the organs originate from, the cash can be a lifeline, regardless of whether it is just 6,000 to 10,000 dollars. Try not to get it into your psyche that lone crooks utilize the bootleg market, forgetting about the way that the underground market is unlawful and utilizing it makes you a lawbreaker. Individuals living in nations with no prepaid human services framework might not have enough cash to go to a medical clinic and pay strange measures of cash for another organ. This is the point at which they walk out on the medical clinic and go to the underground market, who is greeting them wholeheartedly. On the off chance that that individual doesn’t mind something somewhat more unsterile, at that point a clinic, at that point the bootleg market is the correct spot for them. Anyway they are presently hoodlums on the grounds that the underground market is illicit. The bootleg market likewise will purchase out some criminally disapproved of memorial service homes and cut up the bodies for some additional skin tissue or a portion of the organs. This is one reason why the underground market unlawful. Taking everything into account, I imagine that cutting up dead bodies without assent isn't right, yet I do accept that individuals who are alive and needing to sell a kidney ought to be permitted to do as such. So fundamentally I believe that the underground market isn't such an awful thing yet a few people take it excessively far and those are the individuals who should pay for their wrongdoings. References Canadian Society of Transplantation. (n.d.). Canadian Society of Transplantation. Recovered February 25, 2013, from http://www.transplant.ca/pubinfo_organtrans.htm Canadian Transplant Society | Canada Transplant. (n.d.). Canadian Transplant Society | Canada Transplant. Recovered February 25, 2013, from http://www.cantransplant.ca/Organ and Tissue Transplantation and Alternatives by BCC Research in Blood Supply, Tissue Banking, Transplantation, United States. (n.d.). MarketResearch.com Market Research Reports Business and Industry Analysis. Recovered February 25, 2013, from http://www.marketresearch.com/BCC-Research-v374/Organ-Tissue-Transplantation-Alternatives-6122367/Scheve, T. (n.d.). HowStuffWorks The Organ Black Market. HowStuffWorks Science. Recovered February 25, 2013, from http://science.howstuffworks.com/life/human-science/organ-donation7.htm

College Essays About Money Highlighted in The New York Times - College Essay Advisors Admissions Essay Experts

College Essays About Money Highlighted in The New York Times - College Essay Advisors Admissions Essay Experts College Essays About Money Highlighted in The New York Times College Essays About Money Highlighted in The New York Times “Financial hardship and triumph, and wants and needs, are the stuff of great literature,” writes Ron Lieber in a recent New York Times article, and we agree. These Dickensian topics are the stuff of the American dream. They are also incredibly difficult to talk about, especially when youre in high school. To do these topics justice on the written page, they key ingredient is often not tact, but honesty. Some of the greatest American authors from Langston Hughes to John Steinbeck tackled these issues in their writing with sincerity and a focus on capturing genuine American voices. Similarly, when you write your college essay, writing your authentic personal story in your own voice makes all the difference. Even though money and status can seem intimidating or even off-limits as topics, they are also worth exploring if they have truly shaped your life experience. A thoughtful exploration of a complex topic makes for a much more interesting read than a topic that plays it safe. In what has become a yearly tradition, the New York Times recently selected seven stellar examples of college essays about money and work that tackle these complex subjects with honesty and perspective. Weve  selected two of our favorite excerpts to point out  the importance of writing in your own unique voice. 1. Rob Henderson’s story speaks for itself  and thus his simple telling is hugely effective,  showcasing his experiences in all their complexity. The drama of his experience  trying understand his mother’s divorce situation unfolds naturally and requires no embellishment.  Lets take a look: She was a coworker of my mother’s named Shelly. She related that when adults are hurt, they can behave irresponsibly. I was grateful for her honesty and we became close. My mother soon entered a relationship with her. As a young boy, I was puzzled that my mother could now be in a relationship with Shelly. My mother explained that in our society young gay people are often socialized into believing they’re heterosexual and then, as adults, embrace their attraction to the same sex. This blew my 9-year-old mind and intensified my interest in the complexities of human behavior. My mother and her partner Shelly raised me into adolescence. Shelly was shot when I was 14. I was terrified that she wouldn’t survive; I felt great affection for her. I was rejected by other parental figures, yet Shelly chose to help care for me. She survived after extensive surgery and received an insurance settlement which she and my mother used to buy a home. One year later, our home was foreclosed. I’d developed enough resilience to overcome the ordeal and I decided to take initiative. You couldnt possibly pack more feeling into this essay. Sometimes a good story just needs to be told and adding extra  bells and whistles can lead to overwriting that distracts the reader. Writing in your own natural voice demonstrates both authenticity and self control. 2. Adriane Tharpe begins her essay about working at Domino’s with a description of her fluid identity: “Whenever I donned my black visor and navy blue polo, customers didn’t see an art school feminist who loved banned books, French films and protest songs. I was a face, a face who took orders and tossed pizzas.” From there, her essay continues in its earnest yet quirky exploration of the ways in which pizza can unite people and reveals her to be a keen observer of the world around her.   Domino’s was like an Island of Misfit Toys floating in the middle of Alabama. My coworkers all joked about each other for what made us different: Richard was a walking Star Wars database, Mike was O.C.D. when it came to stacking pizza boxes, I was a vegetarian who often had to package the meat. Kristen, now 40, had worked at pizzerias since she was 14 and was currently filing applications to enroll in college. Terry preached to a small congregation when he wasn’t delivering. Ever since I moved here, I’ve felt like an outsider in my community. I live for the arts while my town prioritizes football and fishing. The general population is Caucasian, Christian, Republican, anti-gay, and pro-guns â€" or so I thought. At Domino’s, three of my coworkers fasted for Ramadan, one of the drivers read novels while waiting for deliveries and both of my bosses were women. The people who came in were far from homogenous, as diverse as the pizzas they ordered: Caucasian, Asian, African-American, and Mexican lawyers, firemen, construction workers, stay-at-home mothers, house painters. Many were married, some were divorced and some were single. Many had kids. Many were still kids. I couldn’t help but admire them. Adrianes most effective strategy is pointing out a host of details, which reveal not only a keen eye but a genuine compassion for those around her. This ultimately builds to a much larger observation about community and identity. These are but two small excerpts from a series of stellar highlighted essays.  As you can imagine, all are worth a full read. Read the rest via The New York Times. Want essay help on demand? Watch our video series! Read our guide  to the 2015-16 Common App Essay. Read more about  The College Essay Advisors Process. About Thea HogarthView all posts by Thea Hogarth »

College Essays About Money Highlighted in The New York Times - College Essay Advisors Admissions Essay Experts

College Essays About Money Highlighted in The New York Times - College Essay Advisors Admissions Essay Experts College Essays About Money Highlighted in The New York Times College Essays About Money Highlighted in The New York Times “Financial hardship and triumph, and wants and needs, are the stuff of great literature,” writes Ron Lieber in a recent New York Times article, and we agree. These Dickensian topics are the stuff of the American dream. They are also incredibly difficult to talk about, especially when youre in high school. To do these topics justice on the written page, they key ingredient is often not tact, but honesty. Some of the greatest American authors from Langston Hughes to John Steinbeck tackled these issues in their writing with sincerity and a focus on capturing genuine American voices. Similarly, when you write your college essay, writing your authentic personal story in your own voice makes all the difference. Even though money and status can seem intimidating or even off-limits as topics, they are also worth exploring if they have truly shaped your life experience. A thoughtful exploration of a complex topic makes for a much more interesting read than a topic that plays it safe. In what has become a yearly tradition, the New York Times recently selected seven stellar examples of college essays about money and work that tackle these complex subjects with honesty and perspective. Weve  selected two of our favorite excerpts to point out  the importance of writing in your own unique voice. 1. Rob Henderson’s story speaks for itself  and thus his simple telling is hugely effective,  showcasing his experiences in all their complexity. The drama of his experience  trying understand his mother’s divorce situation unfolds naturally and requires no embellishment.  Lets take a look: She was a coworker of my mother’s named Shelly. She related that when adults are hurt, they can behave irresponsibly. I was grateful for her honesty and we became close. My mother soon entered a relationship with her. As a young boy, I was puzzled that my mother could now be in a relationship with Shelly. My mother explained that in our society young gay people are often socialized into believing they’re heterosexual and then, as adults, embrace their attraction to the same sex. This blew my 9-year-old mind and intensified my interest in the complexities of human behavior. My mother and her partner Shelly raised me into adolescence. Shelly was shot when I was 14. I was terrified that she wouldn’t survive; I felt great affection for her. I was rejected by other parental figures, yet Shelly chose to help care for me. She survived after extensive surgery and received an insurance settlement which she and my mother used to buy a home. One year later, our home was foreclosed. I’d developed enough resilience to overcome the ordeal and I decided to take initiative. You couldnt possibly pack more feeling into this essay. Sometimes a good story just needs to be told and adding extra  bells and whistles can lead to overwriting that distracts the reader. Writing in your own natural voice demonstrates both authenticity and self control. 2. Adriane Tharpe begins her essay about working at Domino’s with a description of her fluid identity: “Whenever I donned my black visor and navy blue polo, customers didn’t see an art school feminist who loved banned books, French films and protest songs. I was a face, a face who took orders and tossed pizzas.” From there, her essay continues in its earnest yet quirky exploration of the ways in which pizza can unite people and reveals her to be a keen observer of the world around her.   Domino’s was like an Island of Misfit Toys floating in the middle of Alabama. My coworkers all joked about each other for what made us different: Richard was a walking Star Wars database, Mike was O.C.D. when it came to stacking pizza boxes, I was a vegetarian who often had to package the meat. Kristen, now 40, had worked at pizzerias since she was 14 and was currently filing applications to enroll in college. Terry preached to a small congregation when he wasn’t delivering. Ever since I moved here, I’ve felt like an outsider in my community. I live for the arts while my town prioritizes football and fishing. The general population is Caucasian, Christian, Republican, anti-gay, and pro-guns â€" or so I thought. At Domino’s, three of my coworkers fasted for Ramadan, one of the drivers read novels while waiting for deliveries and both of my bosses were women. The people who came in were far from homogenous, as diverse as the pizzas they ordered: Caucasian, Asian, African-American, and Mexican lawyers, firemen, construction workers, stay-at-home mothers, house painters. Many were married, some were divorced and some were single. Many had kids. Many were still kids. I couldn’t help but admire them. Adrianes most effective strategy is pointing out a host of details, which reveal not only a keen eye but a genuine compassion for those around her. This ultimately builds to a much larger observation about community and identity. These are but two small excerpts from a series of stellar highlighted essays.  As you can imagine, all are worth a full read. Read the rest via The New York Times. Want essay help on demand? Watch our video series! Read our guide  to the 2015-16 Common App Essay. Read more about  The College Essay Advisors Process. About Thea HogarthView all posts by Thea Hogarth »

Why Is the Ocean Blue and Sometimes Green

Have you ever wondered why the ocean is blue or why it is sometimes another color, like green, instead? Heres the science behind the color of the sea.​ The Answer Is in the Light There are a few reasons why the ocean is blue. The best answer is that the ocean is blue because it is mostly water, which is blue in large quantities. When light strikes water, like sunlight, the water filters the light so that red is absorbed and some blue is reflected. Blue also travels farther through water than light with longer wavelengths (red, yellow, and green), though very little light reaches deeper than 200 meters (656 feet), and no light at all penetrates beyond 2,000 meters (6,562 feet). Another reason the ocean appears blue is because it reflects the color of the sky. Tiny particles in the ocean act as reflective mirrors, so a large part of the color you see depends on what is around the ocean. Sometimes the ocean appears other colors besides blue. For example, the Atlantic off the East Coast of the United States usually appears green. This is due to the presence of algae and plant life. The ocean may appear gray under a cloudy sky or brown when the water contains a lot of sediment, as when a river empties into the sea or after the water has been stirred up by a storm. Related Science For more on the color blue in science, check out these articles: Why Blood Isnt BlueWhy Babies Have Blue EyesWhy Veins Look BlueWhy Is Ice Blue

Paragraph On The State Of Security - 2300 Words

Preamble The state of security in our country is near a grave experience, especially the north-eastern part of Nigeria. A country where the security of lives and property has deteriorated to the Hobbesian state of nature; a situation of anarchy, total lack of law and order, a precarious circumstance of survival of the fittest and the elimination of the unfit, reveals nothing order than O. Henry s banana republic. Such is our situation - suspicion has become the order of the day as the number one citizen of the country has made public confessions. Popular words on the lips of Nigerians are; boko, bomb and bullet. A sure creed for a people in travail hopelessly hoping against hope - looking up to a security outfit that has failed either because it has compromised its stand or it is helpless due to its unsophisticated armaments compared to those of those threatening the unity and integrity of our common existence as a people and a nation. The ugly state of affairs namely insecurity, plus a poverty-stricken populace unsure of the so-called dividends of corruption-bound democracy greased by privatization and the deregulation of the petroleum down stream sector, leaves much to be desired. The Arab spring and the January fuel subsidy protests have a lot of lessons for our nation. Many social critics and analysts have lend credence to this fact. America had predicted 2015 for our break-up as a nation but now, 2030. Are we going to fold our arms and watch our country head forShow MoreRelatedFear Technology in Mark Hagerott and Daniel Sarewitzs Article, A Future in Denial862 Words   |  4 PagesIn Mark Hagerott and Daniel Sarewitz article a future in denial it states that technology is something to fear because of the negative effect it has on a person’s own individuality. The authors try to persuade and inform the audience by using sci-fi movies to correlate real world problems such as the Edward Snowden scandal or the NSA wiretapping scandal with something more understandable and relatable such as a movie. I think the authors of the article are however unsuccessful in their approach becauseRead MoreIs Nuclear Power the Way to Go? Essay1458 Words   |  6 Page sIs nuclear power the way to go? Nuclear Power? What is nuclear power and why do so countries pursuit it or ask to be ban? According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency nuclear power is created through a process call fission where uranian atoms are seperate which leads to the release of energy (paragraph one, epa.gov, 4/22/2011). The first major investment on nuclear power was seen in the Manhanttan Project. 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The World War II ( Wwii ) Essay - 1875 Words

World War II (WWII) lasted longer and killed more people than the Great War. There was not a fast victory conquered by bombers hitting the heart of the enemy. Air power’s contribution to the allied victory did not represent the ultimate fulfillment of the predictions of interwar theorists. Even though air power had an important role, and many lessons and doctrines emerged after this period, the visions of Douhet, Mitchell and others did not materialized as they expected. In this paper, I will discuss three of the main prophecies: the effectiveness of the strategic bombing, the ability of air power to win the war by itself, and the futility of the use of air power for defense of territory. Strategic bombing was the main prophecy emerged after World War I (WWI). It would avoid the bloody and slow process of ground invasion to hit the enemy will to fight. Theorists offered efficiency and speed instead of attrition and carnage. In the industrial societies, destroying the weapon industrial plants and frightening its work force in theory implied leaving the enemy without means to fight.2 However, during the first campaigns of WWII was evident that it was not so simple to reach the targets.3 Thus; the prediction reflected an optimist perspective, obviating the difficulties before arriving to the point. Even in the best case, without significant air opposition, altitude was inversely proportional to the accuracy of the bombs due to limitations of crew training and technology. ItShow MoreRelatedThe World War II ( Wwii )1581 Words   |  7 Pagesrelations to the Nazi Regime. But only a few know, that during the World War II (WWII), there were a few German non-violent resistan ce groups. These groups tried to â€Å"fight† the Nazis from within. Just to mention a few, there was the student circle who called themselves the White Rose, another one was the Kreisau Circle, another group was The Swing Kids. But did these non-violent movement groups had any effects on the outcome of World War II? Most students that belonged to the White Rose group, that roseRead MoreWwii And The World War II953 Words   |  4 PagesWorld War II involved the vast majority of the world s nations consecutively between the years of 1939 and 1945. WWII altered the political alignment and social structure of the world. WWII began far before the invasion of Poland. Beginning with the Great Depression and the Stock Market Crash together aggressively pushing Germany in despair for economic and political revival. With the defeat of WWI, by The Treaty of Versailles, Germany was forced to accept responsibility for the war damages, payingRead MoreWorld War II ( Wwii )1312 Words   |  6 Pagescamps† are all words that make you think of World War II (WWII) and these are all closely related to WWII. What about â€Å"Rosie the Riveter†, â€Å"war bonds†, â€Å"the family dynamics†, â€Å"rubber and aluminum drives†? 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In the 1930’s and before WWII America was in the (not so) Great DepressionRead MoreThe World War II ( Wwii )1823 Words   |  8 PagesSummary of Evidence World War II (WWII) †¢ â€Å"The Second World War was a necessary consequence of the First World War’s termination in the peace dictates of Versailles and St. Germain.† †¢ â€Å"The outbreak of the war of 1939 was caused directly by the conflict between Poland and Germany over the â€Å"Corridor† and Danzig problems.† †¢ On December 7, 1941 the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor, Hawaii and also attacked the Philippines, Wake Island, Guam, Malaya, Thailand, Shanghai and Midway. United States ofRead MoreDeveloping Countries During World War II ( Wwii )1211 Words   |  5 PagesTrade policy in developing countries obtained major influence from the changing views in economic development, namely, inward looking and outward looking (Moon, 1998). For about 3 decades after World War II (WWII), the trade policy of developing countries relies on inward-looking development. This type of development is implemented through autarky trade policies to protect country’s local manufacture industry. There are so many critics delivered during the inward looking development implementationRead MoreWhy the U.S. got Involved in WWII in Patrick Herdens Book, Roosevelt Confronts Hitler: America’s Entry into World War II699 Words   |  3 PagesPatrick Hearden’s book, Roosevelt Confronts Hitler: America’s Entry into World War II, is offering an explanation as to how and why the United States got itself involved in a second world war. Hearden states, th at the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and Nazi Germany’s declaration of war hastened United States intervention. These two reasons, however, are not the underlying foundation of why the United States entered the war, according to Hearden’s research. Through a quick examination of the chapterRead MoreWhy Did The Allies Win World War II?1480 Words   |  6 PagesAbstract Why did the Allies win World War II? (Roark 854) In this paper we will be discussing the reasons behind why the Allies were able to defeat the Axis powers in World War II. (Roark Ch.25, p. 792) During the era of World War II technology developed largely during this time. (History Net Where History Comes Alive World US History Online RSS) The improvements in technology helped the Allies win World War II, because of technological advances it helped the Allies be more ahead of the Axis powers

The Road, Cormac Mccarthy free essay sample

The Road by Cormac McCarthy Rotted corpses. Landscapes devastated by fire. Abandoned towns and houses. In the post-apocalyptical novel, The Road, Cormac McCarthy explores the perseverance of a man and his son to survive in an obliterated world. He demonstrates that in spite of devastating conditions and dismal surroundings, goodness prevails over evil and an inherent goodness is present in humanity and the â€Å"good guy† no matter how dire the circumstances. Most importantly, the goodness portrayed, comes out of love. The man and the boy in this story are never named because the represent general humanity. If people , humans are provided with a reason to do the right thing, love, children, family, they will do whatever it takes. A parent will do completely unreasonable things to help, save their children out of love. He really doesn’t care what he has to do to keep his son alive – he would (and in fact did) murder a man for posing a threat to his son’s life. We will write a custom essay sample on The Road, Cormac Mccarthy or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In page 76 of the book, the father tells the boy: â€Å"You wanted to know what the bad guys looked like. Now you know. It may happen again. My job is to take care of you. I was appointed to do that by God. I will kill anyone who touches you. Do you understand? † The lives of the man and the boy truly are worst-case scenarios. How many times have we wondered at one point or another in our lives if we’d be willing to take a bullet to the head or kill someone for our families’ or loved ones’ sake? These characters have been placed in that exact situation. They live in a post-apocalyptic world where human beings have been stripped to their core and have been driven to extremes by their innate need to survive, and they are no exception. The father is carrying out all those â€Å"what ifs† – he is doing what he must to keep his son safe. Truly, the only thing that keeps them going is their love for one another. â€Å"A symbol of the goodness in human perseverance and hope is the fire that the father assures his son they carry. As a good guy, the man and the boy carry the fire internally, meaning that they strive to live under all circumstances. † â€Å"The man does not consider acting violently in defense of his sons survival evil. Yet, what makes this choice more praiseworthy than the choices of the people who kill and even cannibalize others in order to survive? † Truck event: The difference between the father’s actions and the actions of the other people mentioned is that the father committed murder to preserve his son’s life, something he holds dear. This is a just cause. However, the violent acts committed by the aforementioned people were generally for self gain. Violence begets violence e. g. canibbals continue their blood thirsty ventures vs the dads violence restores peace and ends the violence. Son is a symbol of goodness, father sees him as christ figure†¦. the boy cannot agree with his father that the right thing to do is to refuse to help others who are in dire need, especially when they have not shown any evidence of being dangerous. Son sees dad as selfish (e. g. alues his sons life) while son himself is selfless†¦ the father does not trust any other individual they see or meet. Only his son extends his humbling trust in others, offering to help Ely and the thief without first determining whether their intentions are malicious. the boy does not understand the need to hurt others in any circumstances, even when they may pose a danger to his own survival or have already hurt him. For example, the boy pleads for his father to spare the thief and, even more, to help him. End Event Father Dies: Thesis:

A Citizens Right To be Equal (american History X) essays

A Citizen's Right To be Equal (american History X) essays America is known to many as a free country. It was founded on the belief that all citizens would have the opportunity to thrive. This notion has not always been true. In the early years of our country, racism was a large setback. Slavery ruined the idea of a free country, the idea that was supposed to be the most important of all. Over the years slavery was abolished and racism has been largely eliminated. There is, however, some racism still present in that only holds our country back. These racist people cannot be called citizens because of their actions. The definition of a citizen is A person owing loyalty to and entitled by birth or naturalization to the protection of a state or nation (American Heritage Dictionary). Part of being loyal and protecting the state is to obey the rules and ideals that the state has set. One of those ideals is to work with our peers toward something that would better society, no matter what race or religion they may be. We can see examples of this in the movie American History X. The movie begins with a gang of black guys trying to rob a car from one of the main characters, Derek. Derek, a racist, kills two of the three gang members, one of them very brutally by making him bite the curb and stomping on his head. He is sent to jail for three years for murder, and it would have been life if his brother had testified in the trial. As they explain later in the movie, Dereks racism started off because of his father. He told Derek not to listen to his black teacher saying, read the book, ace the guys test. Just dont swallow everything he feeds you whole just because you see it on the evening news. The father goes on to talk about affirmative black-tion and how the stuff his teacher tells him is nigger bullshit. Dereks racism only got worse when his dad, a fireman, was killed in a black neighborhood on the job in a black neighborhood...

outsiders genra essays

outsiders genra essays The word genre is defined as a category of artistic composition, as in music or literature, marked by a distinctive style, form, or content. (www.doctionary.com) Some of these genres are, comedy, horror, thriller, and or action. The novel written by S.E. Hinton titled The Outsiders may fall into a wide variety of different genres. One of the most distinctive genre formation called is bildungsroman. This term arrives from the German word meaning an upbringing or education novel. (Scamurra, note) The Outsiders emanates a sense of tests and tasks, and eventually Ponyboy comes to maturity when he realizes the futility and distinctive life he has been leading. It is this epiphany that makes The Outsiders a Bildungsroman. In the novel The Outsiders Ponyboy Curtis starts off in a state of innocence and immaturity. Ponyboy shows innocence and immaturity every time he mentions the long feud between the Greasers and Socs. Ponyboy believes that Greasers and Socs are completely different individuals: ... Were poorer than the Socs and the middle class. I recon were wilder, too. Not like the Socs, who jump Greasers and wreck houses and throw beer blasts for kicks... (page 6) Ponyboy clearly states Greasers and Socs are different from each other. Another aspect that proves Ponyboys innocence is he is only fourteen years of age; ...treating me as if I was six instead of fourteen... (page 6) very obviously Ponyboy notifies the readers he is fourteen years old. Ponyboy also does not use his integrity sometimes which shows a great deal of immaturity: ...I make good grades and have a high IQ and everything, but I dont use my head...( page 7) Ponyboy says he is a smart person, but he does not use his full potential a...

The Cold War--The Real Intentions of the Superpowers Term Paper

The Cold War--The Real Intentions of the Superpowers - Term Paper Example The intentions of the super powers engaged in the Cold War were not simply to defend their territories and interests but they went beyond their defence and took it as an opportunity to spread and establish their influence all over the world. The origins of the cold war could be traced back inside the complex relationship of the two main powers of the world United Stated and Soviet Union after the WWI. These post war relations led to the cold war that tool almost half a century. There are some events also where the origins of the cold war could be traced like different events preceding the WWI and Russian revolution of 1917 is also regarded as the factors that work for the base of the cold war however the tension between the two superpowers of the world was the most important factor that led them towards the cold war (Findley and Gerber, 2007). The important reason behind the cold war was the ideological conflict between communism and capitalism that actually began in 1917 and led tow ards the Russian Revolution after which the relationship between US and Russia were significantly affected. Some of the experts also believe that the cold war began as a result of the legacy of different heritages of empire building between the Russia and America. Both of these countries were hav9ing the intention to build their empire however they are totally different (Painter, 1994). During the war, USA used to a maritime power that was based on the trade and commerce development whereas Russia used to a bureaucratic and land-based power. Moreover there was also an imperial rivalry between Britain and Russia due to which also there was tension between the UK and Russia. In nineteenth century tsar adopted the policy of improving the maritime access of Russia by the main disadvantage of Russia was that despite having large territory they can make use of little sea cost because big portion of their sea cost used to be freeze though out the year (Brands, 1993). Great Britain, on the other hand was significantly progressing towards expansion of maritime. However the completion of the Suez Canal in 1869 was a great concern for Great Britain because it added to the strength of Russia. The other political and territorial expansion policies of Russia were rising worried on Britain side and there were great worried regarding the safety of the frontier areas due to the fear of Russian expansion. Along with the clash of ideologies the two countries USA and Russia also have certain issues of conflict between them. There had been limited trade and diplomatic relationship between these two countries even before the cold war time. US took part in the efforts of crush Bolshevism from 1918 to 1920 that was not liked by Russia and on the other hand Russia work efficiently for the promotion and spread of communism across its own borders that was not liked by US and thus both of these countries has great disagreements with each other. Till 1933, US did not recognize USSR and th ey see Soviet system as a threat. Thus this was the background from where the origin of the cold war can be traced and understood and it shows that the super powers were not simply looking for the expansion and defence of their territory but they want the world community to recognize and accept their ideologies and supremacy

Hubble space telescope Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Hubble space telescope - Research Paper Example this brief analysis will consider the initial need and desire for such an instrument, development of the telescope, launch and operation use, breakthroughs in astrophysics and astronomy that have since been able to be uncovered by means of the Hubble Space Telescope, and future outlook for the Hubble as well as other planned space telescopes. Although certainly not the first astronomer to note the need for a space based telescope, Hermann Olberth formerly iterated his desire to see such a plan put into implementation as early as 1923. The ultimate reason behind such a bold and technologically challenging plan was the need to get beyond earth’s inner atmosphere as a means to reduce the level of light and environmental pollutants and/or dust that so strongly influenced the quality of astronomical work that could be performed with traditional earth based telescopes. Recognizing these limitations, astronomers such as Hubble began to lobby funding entities for the means to design and build a non-earth based telescope (O’Dell 265). Unfortunately however, as is often the case with scientific visionaries, the work of actually building the space telescope was not completed until long after Olberth and many others instrumental in the formulation and development of such an idea were dead. After years of delays, a near continual struggle for available resources and review and oversight by nearly every imaginable entity, the Hubble Space telescope was finally launched in 1990. It should be noted that regardless of the delays or the budgetary overruns and issues that have herein been discussed, the Hubble Space Telescope represented the very cutting edge of optical technology; so much so that it has continued to be relevant over 20 years after being in service. This is a seemingly impossible feat of engineering and design due to the fact that the computer revolution, the age of the internet, fiber optics, and a litany of other technology breakthroughs have occurred

Television and Cinema in Post Modern Society

Television and Cinema in Post Modern Society Television mocking its big brother Cinema? Through parody is television mocking its big brother Cinema or is simply feeding the post-modern society? Artistic achievement has, in most societies, usually seen as one of the highest goals for its citizens with artists held in highest esteem in society. The Classical civilizations of Rome and Ancient Greece are rightly regarded as artistic highlights of world civilizations due to the unprecedented status given to artists of all trades: poets, painters, bards, actors, sculptors and musicians. This respect for excellence in the arts still exists today However modern art is unfortunately too often derided as a thing of paltry significance as compared to the great artists of the past. FPeriods of high accomplishment such as Ancient Greece or the Renaissance are rightly regarded as containing such artists whose skill and mastery of their respective disciplines may rarely be emulated, if ever. However, is that a reason for giving up on modern artistic output? After all, the twentieth century was that of Pollock, Rockwell and Hockney. But lest we forget, in the annals of history, it is doubtful that the past 100 years will be remembered for their contribution to age-old art forms such as painting or sculpture. Instead, it seems likely and indeed fair that the 20th century will be remembered for the creation, popularization and investigation of the audio-visual arts of cinema and television. From the first shots of the train moving out of Carpentras station, cinema has moved the hearts and minds of millions. The 20th century was witness to the greatest technological advancements in human history and artistic output followed suit. After the silent pictures of the 1900s first captures audiences to the first black-and-white talkies, cinematic progress could never be checked. From success to success, people round the world would be enchanted by Snow White and the Seven Dwarves, awed by Harryhausen’s special effects, moved by Gone With The Wind and horrified by Birth Of A Nation. Every decade would bring an advancement in cinematic output, something which would revolutionize the industry once again and bring new generations into cinemas. These constant progressions in cinema would take place at a far faster rate than in other arts due to several important factors. First of all, the Industrial Revolution of the late 19th-century had sent technological development across the world into a tail-spin which impacted cinema very positively by providing studios with a constant stream of new machinery, effects possibilities. The knock-on effect from this was of course that a steady stream of technicians would be trained and employed by the great studios. We will be analyzing the hiring and firing practices of the studio moguls as compared to the lifelong television employees further on in this dissertation. Another great reason for the appeal of cinema would be the characters contained within it. The glamour of Hollywood until the 1940s would make audiences dream across five continents up to the present day. The gritty reality of much of today’s cinematic output had not even been imagined and movies were used to make people dream of a greater life. We will use this opportunity to further analyze the setting-up of the movie studios, the Jewish origins of most of the moguls and the taste of Americana they injected into their projects later on. Furthermore, we will draw up a detailed comparison between the early days of both film and television, analyzing which tactics worked better in the battles for a limited audience. Even horrifying world events such as World War II would provide the film industry with invigoration as Hollywood and the pre-war German film studios would engage in a rivalry, the like of which has rarely been seen in the arts. With the Hollywood ban on exporting American films to the Third Reich, the motivation for German film-makers was extraordinary and names such as Murnau and Lang emerged as major players on the world cinema scene. Unsurprisingly, the vast majority of them fled Germany during or after the war to seek new lives in Hollywood. Many failed but some met with varying measures of success, the greatest legacy of this time possibly contained in Fritz Lang’s masterpiece Metropolis, the ominous skyline filled with skyscrapers working as a tribute to Lang’s first impressions of seeing New York harbour from far out at sea. However, even from that darkest period of human history has emerged some of the most shocking and lasting pieces of film. The films shot by the Allied forces of the Nazi concentration camps have proved perhaps the most important factor of documentary cinema. Beyond the artistry, beyond the emotional impact, cinema has provided humankind with an unlimited opportunity to document its own history, both good and bad. An opportunity television executives would notice and pick up on. Even today, the claims made by CNN and BBC such as ‘We are there as the news happens’ stem from the passion for news-stories instilled in people during the World War when small news flashes shown as previews before films in movie theatres were the only pictures civilians at home had of the war outside of newspapers. These propagandistic items were of course good for morale and television would soon enter into the fray, edging cinema out to take a monopoly over showing news programs. We must also consider another important area of research. The ‘parodying’ between television and cinema is a term of some ambiguity. Within this dissertation, we will also try and highlight the inherent differences between the terms of parody and emulation. As per rivalry in any kind of industry, some actions that may seem to be a parody of existing practices are in fact no more than emulation, a mere attempt to capitalize on a rival’s success. The concept of parody on the other hand is a very subtle one. Although television and cinema are by definition filled with some of the most acerbic minds in the world, minds quite ripe to create parody, it is somewhat naà ¯ve to think that these people would be allowed to impact decisions on scheduling and programme production. Only those at the summit of their popularity would be allowed their own shows, let alone given creative control of their shows. A recent example of this happening in Britain would be So Graham Norton. However, even these shows often fail as can be demonstrated as can be seen through the antics of stars such as Liza Minnelli, John McEnroe or Anna Nicole Smith. Thus, we can observe that the concept of pure parody being used by cinema and television for its own sake is somewhat mortifying, given the massive financial risks such an undertaking would incur. However, if parody was created to feed the viewing desires of a post-modern audience, then such an action becomes more realistic. To study this, we shall take an in-depth look at the nature of today’s post-modern audience and their viewing habits. In this dissertation, we will be looking in more depth at the first fledgling footsteps of both these art forms, the characters that helped build them up to their global statuses as well as two important periods in their history. The 50s and 60s where cinema and television were in direct competition through the slow transition period of the 70s and 80s into the modern-day scenario of co-operation. With this journey through time, we will be looking at trends pioneered by each of them and looking at any sharing or borrowing of ideas between the two mediums, we shall observe their long and drawn-out rivalry as well as the numerous examples of co-operation between them. The Glamour Years or the faint ridicule of cinema’s golden age If 90% of leadership is showing up, then we can hardly be surprised at the manner in which the men who would become studio moguls quickly rose to the top of this brand new industry. The founders of Paramount, RKO, MGM, Fox and Warner Bros. were for the vast majority immigrants or children of immigrants who had come to America either to seek their fortune or who had grown up with the image of America as this place of opportunity. In the first two decades of the 20th century, these views were far truer than they are now but to attain what one desired when the bar was so high, a lot of hard work would have to be carried out over many years. Thankfully, hard work was what these men’s families had been built on. Possessing this instinct along with a fine sense for business acumen, which some would sarcastically claim was due to their Jewish nature, Mayer, Goldwyn and the others would take the American cinematic market by storm. Before continuing, let us dispel any lingering images of these men helping each other out on their way to success. They entered a ruthless line of business where they were in direct competition and they tried everything to ruin each other, from slandering each other in the popular press to stealing actors and actresses. However, more united them than the moguls would have cared to admit. Since most of them had risen from humble beginnings, their visions of America were an embodiment of the American Dream that had influenced the migration of countless thousands from their home countries. The MGM studio, for example, would become synonymous with Technicolor musicals such as The Wizard of Oz portraying the world as a happy, bright place where everyone lived contently. The Warners would take a more active interest in social commentary but even their early efforts never went too far in criticizing a society that had offered them so much. Across the studio divide, the concepts of method acting had never even been considered and the goal of cinema was to make their actors and actresses look glamorous while portraying a style of life that would make every American dream in wonder. Why this image can be considered with a slight tint of ridicule is its existence in the middle of such troubled times. In the space of thirty years, America would fight in the two bloodiest conflicts in human history yet still, the studios churned out glossy movies, filled with beautiful dames and jolly banter. But here, once again, we strike a familiar obstacle, one that both film and television have met too many times. Too often in criticism about their history, studios or television networks are blamed for the programmes they carry or films they produce. Unfortunately, whilst they cannot be absolved of all blame, the relationship between social trends and popular entertainment is an obvious one. At a time in its history when America was fighting wars, undergoing a recession as well as Prohibition, the last thing American audiences wanted was to be served up with depressing fare that they could identify with. If another example of this is needed, look at what kind of cinema was popularized in the 50s. After the war, the film noir came of age and rose to ascendancy when American society was doing well and people felt good about themselves. A crucial fact that those who are all too quick to lay blame at the feet of the studios is that films and television programs will only be made if their creators feel they will be well-received by the general public. Television’s first faltering footsteps The intertwining and complex relationship between cinema and television cannot only be analyzed from the perspectives of programme similarity and audience sharing. Those who decided on what programmes should be commissioned, those who researched audiences to determine what kind of target audiences should be tapped, those who decided on what type of scheduling to choose at any given time of day, these television executives, producers and network directors would be the ones that would outline how television would evolve from one year to the next. As has been explained, television channels found themselves confronted with a very difficult challenge. Whereas film studios had been opened in great pomp and ceremony with the budgets of their moguls behind them thus allowing them to find their feet and carve their respective identities without a vast amount of competitive pressure placed upon them. Television did not benefit from such an auspicious start. The challenge that faced channels was to find their own identities and thus capture individual audience shares whilst fighting an uphill struggle to dislodge cinema from its spot atop the entertainment mountain. To take this would kind a special kind of organization. How could television not only catch up to cinema but also surpass it in popularity? Well, television started out with two significant advantages. Firstly, that of money. The far larger amount of broadcasting time inherent to television made it a much more viable target for financial gain than cinema which could only show any adverts to limited audiences. The commercial prospects of television soon became clear and this links us neatly with its second trump card. Throughout the 50s, television’s popularity exploded and families were rushing to buy them. The reason this had not occurred during the 1940s was that regulations concerning this new kind of entertainment were still getting sorted out and freed of problems. At the end of the 40s, television was still a luxury and commissions for TV channels had only really affected the East and West Coasts. However, in the 50s, the FCC (Federal Communications Commission) decided to make the acquisition of such a commission far easier and soon, channels began appearing across the States, often broadcasting to a small area but carrying only limited-interest stories for its local people. Thus, television watching became a far more personal affair. As far as programme content, a specific identity for television developed slowly through the 50s with the launching of successful sitcoms such as I Love Lucy which carried high audience shares across the country. However, we can distinguish here the first example of a parody between two entertainment methods. Shows that were once popular on radio were being copied to television, with I Love Lucy a prime example of this. (Wikipedia, 2005) illustrates the identity-forming process of television by explaining how local television stations helped shape this process. Moving on from   merely showing advertisements for local companies, they began showing small serials and talk shows, some of which became national phenomenons. The local nature of this kind of television would eventually mostly fade away by the 70s but the damage done to cinema was irreparable. Television had entered the hearts and minds of successive American generations and it was here to stay. Here, we can draw a major comparison between cinema and television potentially parodying it. Merely watching a few episodes of these old-school sitcoms, we cannot help but be struck at the similarity of tone to the pre-war Hollywood days. It is necessary to diverge briefly to explain the state of mind of 1950s America. Before the war, the USA had undergone a massive recession caused by the Wall Street Crash and thus, it had fallen to the entertainment industry to help people forget their woes. The film industry had done this, as shown above, but the changes it had caused had not died away. Although World War II had caused the death of many a gallant young man, it had lifted the USA into a very buoyant mindset. With the European powers needing a decade more to recover from the conflict, with Japan’s military and economic potential temporarily annihilated, with China still reeling from its murderous invasion, the Soviet Union remained the only true challenge to America’s supremacy. But the Cold War had not yet begun in earnest and in the late 40s and early 50s, the USA saw itself as the world’s only true superpower. The much denigrated Eisenhower presidency kept the economy stable through a tricky balancing act and for most of America, life was good. The Americana dream adapted to no longer be a picture of great wealth but of blissful happiness. The family unit of 2.4 children, living in the comfortable and safe suburban districts with a white picket fence around a big house, was a dream that many wished to achieve and television could reflect that. Shows such as I Love Lucy portrayed a heavenly, glossy picture of American society which is ultimately matched nowhere in entertainment except among the idyllic American communities shown in early studio films. The Warners, Mayer and the others had all built up their studios from the ground up thanks to their own hard work. They were living proof of the possibilities America offered and thus showed this in their films. Television in the 50s emulated this entirely. The era was different, the clothing more modern but the ensemble feeling remained the same. This was not merely borne out in television sitcoms but also in adverts. Sitcoms would be interrupted for commercial upon commercial selling the latest washing-machine, vacuum-cleaner or kitchen appliance without which the dutiful housewife could not live. It is oddly ironic that many of today’s stereotypes about the 50s are a product of this kind of television. It needs to be remembered, However, that this often derided type of family life where the children skipped to school, rosy-cheeked and clutching an apple, while the father gave his loving wife a demure kiss on the cheek before heading to the office in his beautiful Chevrolet is not merely a myth. Around the suburbs of New York, San Francisco and the like, many families not only lived this kind of life but their children and grandchildren still do today. However, the way in which television chose to reflect this society in a utopian sense, glossing over any unpleasantness, was a definite rehashing of the technique used by the film studios of Hollywood twenty years previously. The adaptation of the two mediums and their direct battle for audience shares As television successfully found its feet and began a posing direct threat to cinema, studios were forced to change. After all, no other new form of entertainment had entered general society since the arrival of cinema before television and thus, cinema would have to fight to keep its audiences. A couple of things could be seen as certain before these changes would proceed. Firstly, cinema would never rival television for mass popularity and market potential due to the overwhelming availability of television and its presence in an increasing number of households across America. Secondly, one of television’s worrying tendencies was to garner a lot of advertising money from a wide swathe of big American companies. Electrical appliances, cars, clothes, foodstuffs and drinks were all sold on television during commercial breaks, a fact that cinema could not copy. However, studio executives soon found ways round this problem, ways in which although adverts could not be shown during the movie, surreptitious showing of products could have a similar effect. Product placement was born. Admittedly, in a society which with every passing year produces more and wastes more, it seems that studios have become less adept at making product placement seem natural rather than obvious. The 007 series had always been a treasure trove for companies wishing to place their symbols on James Bond’s latest gadget. With the arrival of Pierce Brosnan into the role However, any shred of subtlety vanished to be replaced with highly obvious use of products. For example, Brosnan’s type of car had always been one of the highlights of the film. In Die Another Day, the presence of the painfully named Aston Martin ‘Vanish’ only served as a sales pitch for the Vanquish. Such utterly shameless product placement did reach a crescendo in 2004 where the amount of plugging for Sony and Converse in I, Robot would have made Isaac Asimov turn in his grave. However, such behaviour can shed some light onto the type of post-modern audience that we are evolving in. Those detractors who claim that post-modernism is merely the natural by-product of such a senselessly wasteful society whose mechanisms result in the attempted alienation of anyone showing a shred of individuality. Whether this is true or not is difficult to ascertain but what is lamentable is that the artistic integrity which has existed since Aristotle is being compromised in cinema out of the desire to keep up with television. Thankfully, the presence of adverts in television, even if sometimes the length of advert breaks can be infuriating has meant this has not happened in television’s case. If we evolve in a post-modernist society, then these differing methods of merely pandering to our consumer’s instincts could seem to be a by-product of intense competition between two forms of popular entertainment. Unfortunately, cinema’s rapid changes would lead to renewed controversy over its spectatorship and its impact thereupon as explained by Lynn Spigel. The concept of spectatorship in itself is a fascinating one, not just within the framework of this dissertation, but also within the field of cinema and television research. The bearings that society can have upon an audience’s watching habits are a crucial fact to understanding how individuals, larger target groups or entire demographics will react to any kind of program. (Spigel, 1998) places the birth of the issue of spectatorship in the 70s as film studies began increasing in popularity. This rise in popularity and its link to audience research are vital as we can use them to comprehend not just how an audience would react to a pioneering film or series in either cinema or television but also how it would react to a parody or any kind of wholesale copying of a popular film or series by another medium of entertainment. The issues raised by Spigel are ones, she claims, whose roots lie back in the ideals of Marx and Lacan. From a psycho-analytical perspective, Spigel writes of the complexities of spectatorship research given the psychological aspects behind it. Although Spigel’s thoughts may be questioned in themselves, they do offer conclusive evidence of audience diversity today and how carefully each aspect of this diversity needs to be considered before deciding on scheduling or production. In this, we can see the great precautions television executives must need to take in order to contemplate parodying of any kind of popular film. Modern television, its workings and its impact upon the world Big, brash, loud. Three words which could describe much of the television programmes produced in America in recent years. Long gone is the demure image of the family sitting down to enjoy some good old American-style programming with shows such as Bewitched or I Dream of Jeannie. Let’s face it, if these shows were produced today, they would face some accusations of glorifying witchcraft, yet another practice banned in Leviticus’ long list of gripes against the world. Somehow, the image of ABC being picketed for showing re-runs of Bewitched may at first strike us as absurd but with careful thought, does this seem so unlikely? One of the major problems facing network directors and schedulers is the problems they could face if showing any material seen as even slightly offensive to anybody. We will not engage here in mindless America-bashing but in a country that has long defended the right to free speech, both the film and television industries are being lambasted by religious and family protection groups for promoting violence and pornography. Whilst this could be understood if horror films were shown at hours when children watched TV or if their cartoons professed truly immoral practices but when complaints relate to Elmer Fudd shooting Bugs Bunny, one can wonder if the world has gone crazy. However insane these complaints can appear to be, they are still a startlingly important reality for today’s television. They form one of the biggest pressures on television executives who are caught in a tricky balancing act. They must maintain their audience shares by scheduling popular programming whilst also keeping packs of demented denigrators at bay. Interestingly, regulations concerning the effect of violent or sexual programming have been in place for decades. After all, most channels, even now with the new glut of cable and digital operators, have respected the 9 o’clock watershed before broadcasting any overly offensive material. Have they been secretly breaching rules of moral conduct in recent years? Whilst it is certain that television programmes do have an impact on those who watch them and while children will always care little about rules or regulations that protect them from exposition to negative images, can this be said to be the wholesale fault of the television industry? If the people want games, then games they shall have. This syllogism is one without which television stations cannot operate and although appeals could be made for public decency, violent and pornographic programmes will only be made and shown as long as the public has an interest in them. Thus, society should look to what elements within itself cause television to broadcast this type of programming rather than attack television for it. A recent example that shows just what a level of frenzy has been reached was the 2004 Superbowl. Justin Timberlake and Janet Jackson provided the entertainment when Timberlake ripped off part of Jackson’s outfit, exposing her pierced right breast. Whether the stunt was pre-prepared or not has not been made crystal clear but the furore that surrounded the incident was mind-boggling. The family protection and decency groups went insane, denouncing all film and television workers as Hollywood sleaze. The fact that this slip occurred during an event with global broadcasting and with audiences reaching into the hundreds of millions blew it out of all proportion. For some reason, that a breast had been shown on national television before the watershed was seen as being a massive breach of public decency and as potentially warping the fragile little minds of innocent children. This level of problems goes a long way to showing the tonnage of pressure placed upon television channels. However, it is thankfully a trend that has not seemed to take hold outside the USA. The EU, Japan and Canada are subjected to the same kind of programming and although some complaints are voiced, they never garner so much media attention. Thus, we can see that the manners in which television panders to its audiences vary from country to country. We have highlighted television’s modus operandi in the USA but let us consider a cross-section of Japanese audiovisual entertainment. More than 20% of Japan’s cinematic output and a vast swathe of its popular television programs are made up of anime. Anime cartoons usually contain far more involved storyline than their American counterparts, replete with high levels of violence, sexy and skimpily-clad female characters and yet, these are watched by children of all ages. Does Japan thus see a higher violence rate among young children? No, in fact, the proportion of it is far lower in Japan than it is in the USA. However, even Japanese anime does not make it onto American airwaves without massive cuts by the censorship office. A good example of this is constituted by the popular anime series, Dragonball Z. In it, a group of fighters defend Earth from invasion by evil aliens or androids. Throughout its 250+ episodes, the show contains high levels of violence, including dismembering, decapitation and the beating of children. As can be imagined, when the show was broadcast in America on Cartoon Network, all these passages were cut to spare the minds of our children. However, in Japan, Dragonball Z aired in all its unadulterated gore and no-one seemed the worse for wear. This is not to say that so much violence on TV is good. Indeed, it is lamentable that it should exist at all but it is highly unfair to lay the blame for any consequences at the feet of an industry which is doing its best to keep as many people happy as possible. Although, we have taken a standpoint in attacking America for its high sensitivity when it comes to protecting its children, we have recently been confronted with proof that this type of protest does not only occur in the USA. For ten years, Jerry Springer shocked the nation with its own brand of low chatshow humour. Famed topics of debate involved the KKK, incest and bestiality. It had met with both acclaim and criticism at home, some calling it a true social commentary, other cheap laughter at others’ misfortunes. Anyway, the comedic potential of the idea was soon seen and in 2002, it was turned into a musical named Jerry Springer: The Opera, starring David Soul as Jerry Springer, showing in the West End and on Broadway. Controversy courted it throughout but its great success shouted down these demons. However, in January 2005, the BBC decided to show the musical in its entirety. As soon as this decision was made public, Christian right-wing groups attacked the BBC for insulting Christians when it would not dare the same about Muslims or Jews. While this claim did have some merit, the BBC ignored these claims and broadcast the show at 10 o’clock on a Monday night with clear warning beforehand about the potentially offensive content within it. Examples of this type of occurrence could number in their hundreds but they are an ideal way of investigating how modern audiences identify with television programmes and react to them. One of the basic tenets is that post-modernism is that reactions to any situation are processes created by each individual and that thus, clear definitions of knowledge or art encompassing a group or a society are baseless. In this, it can be argued that the very concept of a post-modern audience is flawed. However, whatever theory we choose to engage with, we cannot reject human nature. In the last twenty years, it seems that many among the generation of young people across America who fought in the 60s and 70s against Vietnam, against the Cold War, for Civil Rights and for many other noble causes have become dangerously jaded. America’s quality of life at the end of the 70s and in the 80s reached a high unseen since the 50s. Although the gap between rich and poor was ever-widening, the lifestyles of the middle and upper classes were prodigious. America was still afflicted with problems in Iran, Central America but the Soviet Block was crumbling and the mood among the general population was good. However, in the 80s and 90s occurred a phenomenon that not many people had truly predicted. The baby-boomers who had so been influential in re-shaping America after World War II were themselves beginning to be required to pass the torch to the next generation. Thus, the norms of society that they had created were themselves being challenged by their children. This shift occurred through the appropriation of traditional American areas of life by the younger generation such as television, cinema, the press as well as the fledgling Internet. We will look in further detail at the emergence of teenagers as a separate marketing entity and the impact of the home video on cinema and television as it entered this confused social maze. (Carberry, 2000) picks up on the popular image of television being viewed as a window on the world. This image, although adequate in some respects, also fails to pay attention to one crucial fact about television. If we look out of a window, we are certain that we will see will be real. A television does not offer this capacity. Television programmes are constructed and even factual news bulletins or documentaries can be edited to look the way the news director wants them to. We know enough of methods of communication to realize the propagandistic power of television and therefore we are conscious that we must always take a step back when rationalizing about something we have seen on television. Television, by its very nature, is as big a construct as cinema however Television and Cinema in Post Modern Society Television and Cinema in Post Modern Society Television mocking its big brother Cinema? Through parody is television mocking its big brother Cinema or is simply feeding the post-modern society? Artistic achievement has, in most societies, usually seen as one of the highest goals for its citizens with artists held in highest esteem in society. The Classical civilizations of Rome and Ancient Greece are rightly regarded as artistic highlights of world civilizations due to the unprecedented status given to artists of all trades: poets, painters, bards, actors, sculptors and musicians. This respect for excellence in the arts still exists today However modern art is unfortunately too often derided as a thing of paltry significance as compared to the great artists of the past. FPeriods of high accomplishment such as Ancient Greece or the Renaissance are rightly regarded as containing such artists whose skill and mastery of their respective disciplines may rarely be emulated, if ever. However, is that a reason for giving up on modern artistic output? After all, the twentieth century was that of Pollock, Rockwell and Hockney. But lest we forget, in the annals of history, it is doubtful that the past 100 years will be remembered for their contribution to age-old art forms such as painting or sculpture. Instead, it seems likely and indeed fair that the 20th century will be remembered for the creation, popularization and investigation of the audio-visual arts of cinema and television. From the first shots of the train moving out of Carpentras station, cinema has moved the hearts and minds of millions. The 20th century was witness to the greatest technological advancements in human history and artistic output followed suit. After the silent pictures of the 1900s first captures audiences to the first black-and-white talkies, cinematic progress could never be checked. From success to success, people round the world would be enchanted by Snow White and the Seven Dwarves, awed by Harryhausen’s special effects, moved by Gone With The Wind and horrified by Birth Of A Nation. Every decade would bring an advancement in cinematic output, something which would revolutionize the industry once again and bring new generations into cinemas. These constant progressions in cinema would take place at a far faster rate than in other arts due to several important factors. First of all, the Industrial Revolution of the late 19th-century had sent technological development across the world into a tail-spin which impacted cinema very positively by providing studios with a constant stream of new machinery, effects possibilities. The knock-on effect from this was of course that a steady stream of technicians would be trained and employed by the great studios. We will be analyzing the hiring and firing practices of the studio moguls as compared to the lifelong television employees further on in this dissertation. Another great reason for the appeal of cinema would be the characters contained within it. The glamour of Hollywood until the 1940s would make audiences dream across five continents up to the present day. The gritty reality of much of today’s cinematic output had not even been imagined and movies were used to make people dream of a greater life. We will use this opportunity to further analyze the setting-up of the movie studios, the Jewish origins of most of the moguls and the taste of Americana they injected into their projects later on. Furthermore, we will draw up a detailed comparison between the early days of both film and television, analyzing which tactics worked better in the battles for a limited audience. Even horrifying world events such as World War II would provide the film industry with invigoration as Hollywood and the pre-war German film studios would engage in a rivalry, the like of which has rarely been seen in the arts. With the Hollywood ban on exporting American films to the Third Reich, the motivation for German film-makers was extraordinary and names such as Murnau and Lang emerged as major players on the world cinema scene. Unsurprisingly, the vast majority of them fled Germany during or after the war to seek new lives in Hollywood. Many failed but some met with varying measures of success, the greatest legacy of this time possibly contained in Fritz Lang’s masterpiece Metropolis, the ominous skyline filled with skyscrapers working as a tribute to Lang’s first impressions of seeing New York harbour from far out at sea. However, even from that darkest period of human history has emerged some of the most shocking and lasting pieces of film. The films shot by the Allied forces of the Nazi concentration camps have proved perhaps the most important factor of documentary cinema. Beyond the artistry, beyond the emotional impact, cinema has provided humankind with an unlimited opportunity to document its own history, both good and bad. An opportunity television executives would notice and pick up on. Even today, the claims made by CNN and BBC such as ‘We are there as the news happens’ stem from the passion for news-stories instilled in people during the World War when small news flashes shown as previews before films in movie theatres were the only pictures civilians at home had of the war outside of newspapers. These propagandistic items were of course good for morale and television would soon enter into the fray, edging cinema out to take a monopoly over showing news programs. We must also consider another important area of research. The ‘parodying’ between television and cinema is a term of some ambiguity. Within this dissertation, we will also try and highlight the inherent differences between the terms of parody and emulation. As per rivalry in any kind of industry, some actions that may seem to be a parody of existing practices are in fact no more than emulation, a mere attempt to capitalize on a rival’s success. The concept of parody on the other hand is a very subtle one. Although television and cinema are by definition filled with some of the most acerbic minds in the world, minds quite ripe to create parody, it is somewhat naà ¯ve to think that these people would be allowed to impact decisions on scheduling and programme production. Only those at the summit of their popularity would be allowed their own shows, let alone given creative control of their shows. A recent example of this happening in Britain would be So Graham Norton. However, even these shows often fail as can be demonstrated as can be seen through the antics of stars such as Liza Minnelli, John McEnroe or Anna Nicole Smith. Thus, we can observe that the concept of pure parody being used by cinema and television for its own sake is somewhat mortifying, given the massive financial risks such an undertaking would incur. However, if parody was created to feed the viewing desires of a post-modern audience, then such an action becomes more realistic. To study this, we shall take an in-depth look at the nature of today’s post-modern audience and their viewing habits. In this dissertation, we will be looking in more depth at the first fledgling footsteps of both these art forms, the characters that helped build them up to their global statuses as well as two important periods in their history. The 50s and 60s where cinema and television were in direct competition through the slow transition period of the 70s and 80s into the modern-day scenario of co-operation. With this journey through time, we will be looking at trends pioneered by each of them and looking at any sharing or borrowing of ideas between the two mediums, we shall observe their long and drawn-out rivalry as well as the numerous examples of co-operation between them. The Glamour Years or the faint ridicule of cinema’s golden age If 90% of leadership is showing up, then we can hardly be surprised at the manner in which the men who would become studio moguls quickly rose to the top of this brand new industry. The founders of Paramount, RKO, MGM, Fox and Warner Bros. were for the vast majority immigrants or children of immigrants who had come to America either to seek their fortune or who had grown up with the image of America as this place of opportunity. In the first two decades of the 20th century, these views were far truer than they are now but to attain what one desired when the bar was so high, a lot of hard work would have to be carried out over many years. Thankfully, hard work was what these men’s families had been built on. Possessing this instinct along with a fine sense for business acumen, which some would sarcastically claim was due to their Jewish nature, Mayer, Goldwyn and the others would take the American cinematic market by storm. Before continuing, let us dispel any lingering images of these men helping each other out on their way to success. They entered a ruthless line of business where they were in direct competition and they tried everything to ruin each other, from slandering each other in the popular press to stealing actors and actresses. However, more united them than the moguls would have cared to admit. Since most of them had risen from humble beginnings, their visions of America were an embodiment of the American Dream that had influenced the migration of countless thousands from their home countries. The MGM studio, for example, would become synonymous with Technicolor musicals such as The Wizard of Oz portraying the world as a happy, bright place where everyone lived contently. The Warners would take a more active interest in social commentary but even their early efforts never went too far in criticizing a society that had offered them so much. Across the studio divide, the concepts of method acting had never even been considered and the goal of cinema was to make their actors and actresses look glamorous while portraying a style of life that would make every American dream in wonder. Why this image can be considered with a slight tint of ridicule is its existence in the middle of such troubled times. In the space of thirty years, America would fight in the two bloodiest conflicts in human history yet still, the studios churned out glossy movies, filled with beautiful dames and jolly banter. But here, once again, we strike a familiar obstacle, one that both film and television have met too many times. Too often in criticism about their history, studios or television networks are blamed for the programmes they carry or films they produce. Unfortunately, whilst they cannot be absolved of all blame, the relationship between social trends and popular entertainment is an obvious one. At a time in its history when America was fighting wars, undergoing a recession as well as Prohibition, the last thing American audiences wanted was to be served up with depressing fare that they could identify with. If another example of this is needed, look at what kind of cinema was popularized in the 50s. After the war, the film noir came of age and rose to ascendancy when American society was doing well and people felt good about themselves. A crucial fact that those who are all too quick to lay blame at the feet of the studios is that films and television programs will only be made if their creators feel they will be well-received by the general public. Television’s first faltering footsteps The intertwining and complex relationship between cinema and television cannot only be analyzed from the perspectives of programme similarity and audience sharing. Those who decided on what programmes should be commissioned, those who researched audiences to determine what kind of target audiences should be tapped, those who decided on what type of scheduling to choose at any given time of day, these television executives, producers and network directors would be the ones that would outline how television would evolve from one year to the next. As has been explained, television channels found themselves confronted with a very difficult challenge. Whereas film studios had been opened in great pomp and ceremony with the budgets of their moguls behind them thus allowing them to find their feet and carve their respective identities without a vast amount of competitive pressure placed upon them. Television did not benefit from such an auspicious start. The challenge that faced channels was to find their own identities and thus capture individual audience shares whilst fighting an uphill struggle to dislodge cinema from its spot atop the entertainment mountain. To take this would kind a special kind of organization. How could television not only catch up to cinema but also surpass it in popularity? Well, television started out with two significant advantages. Firstly, that of money. The far larger amount of broadcasting time inherent to television made it a much more viable target for financial gain than cinema which could only show any adverts to limited audiences. The commercial prospects of television soon became clear and this links us neatly with its second trump card. Throughout the 50s, television’s popularity exploded and families were rushing to buy them. The reason this had not occurred during the 1940s was that regulations concerning this new kind of entertainment were still getting sorted out and freed of problems. At the end of the 40s, television was still a luxury and commissions for TV channels had only really affected the East and West Coasts. However, in the 50s, the FCC (Federal Communications Commission) decided to make the acquisition of such a commission far easier and soon, channels began appearing across the States, often broadcasting to a small area but carrying only limited-interest stories for its local people. Thus, television watching became a far more personal affair. As far as programme content, a specific identity for television developed slowly through the 50s with the launching of successful sitcoms such as I Love Lucy which carried high audience shares across the country. However, we can distinguish here the first example of a parody between two entertainment methods. Shows that were once popular on radio were being copied to television, with I Love Lucy a prime example of this. (Wikipedia, 2005) illustrates the identity-forming process of television by explaining how local television stations helped shape this process. Moving on from   merely showing advertisements for local companies, they began showing small serials and talk shows, some of which became national phenomenons. The local nature of this kind of television would eventually mostly fade away by the 70s but the damage done to cinema was irreparable. Television had entered the hearts and minds of successive American generations and it was here to stay. Here, we can draw a major comparison between cinema and television potentially parodying it. Merely watching a few episodes of these old-school sitcoms, we cannot help but be struck at the similarity of tone to the pre-war Hollywood days. It is necessary to diverge briefly to explain the state of mind of 1950s America. Before the war, the USA had undergone a massive recession caused by the Wall Street Crash and thus, it had fallen to the entertainment industry to help people forget their woes. The film industry had done this, as shown above, but the changes it had caused had not died away. Although World War II had caused the death of many a gallant young man, it had lifted the USA into a very buoyant mindset. With the European powers needing a decade more to recover from the conflict, with Japan’s military and economic potential temporarily annihilated, with China still reeling from its murderous invasion, the Soviet Union remained the only true challenge to America’s supremacy. But the Cold War had not yet begun in earnest and in the late 40s and early 50s, the USA saw itself as the world’s only true superpower. The much denigrated Eisenhower presidency kept the economy stable through a tricky balancing act and for most of America, life was good. The Americana dream adapted to no longer be a picture of great wealth but of blissful happiness. The family unit of 2.4 children, living in the comfortable and safe suburban districts with a white picket fence around a big house, was a dream that many wished to achieve and television could reflect that. Shows such as I Love Lucy portrayed a heavenly, glossy picture of American society which is ultimately matched nowhere in entertainment except among the idyllic American communities shown in early studio films. The Warners, Mayer and the others had all built up their studios from the ground up thanks to their own hard work. They were living proof of the possibilities America offered and thus showed this in their films. Television in the 50s emulated this entirely. The era was different, the clothing more modern but the ensemble feeling remained the same. This was not merely borne out in television sitcoms but also in adverts. Sitcoms would be interrupted for commercial upon commercial selling the latest washing-machine, vacuum-cleaner or kitchen appliance without which the dutiful housewife could not live. It is oddly ironic that many of today’s stereotypes about the 50s are a product of this kind of television. It needs to be remembered, However, that this often derided type of family life where the children skipped to school, rosy-cheeked and clutching an apple, while the father gave his loving wife a demure kiss on the cheek before heading to the office in his beautiful Chevrolet is not merely a myth. Around the suburbs of New York, San Francisco and the like, many families not only lived this kind of life but their children and grandchildren still do today. However, the way in which television chose to reflect this society in a utopian sense, glossing over any unpleasantness, was a definite rehashing of the technique used by the film studios of Hollywood twenty years previously. The adaptation of the two mediums and their direct battle for audience shares As television successfully found its feet and began a posing direct threat to cinema, studios were forced to change. After all, no other new form of entertainment had entered general society since the arrival of cinema before television and thus, cinema would have to fight to keep its audiences. A couple of things could be seen as certain before these changes would proceed. Firstly, cinema would never rival television for mass popularity and market potential due to the overwhelming availability of television and its presence in an increasing number of households across America. Secondly, one of television’s worrying tendencies was to garner a lot of advertising money from a wide swathe of big American companies. Electrical appliances, cars, clothes, foodstuffs and drinks were all sold on television during commercial breaks, a fact that cinema could not copy. However, studio executives soon found ways round this problem, ways in which although adverts could not be shown during the movie, surreptitious showing of products could have a similar effect. Product placement was born. Admittedly, in a society which with every passing year produces more and wastes more, it seems that studios have become less adept at making product placement seem natural rather than obvious. The 007 series had always been a treasure trove for companies wishing to place their symbols on James Bond’s latest gadget. With the arrival of Pierce Brosnan into the role However, any shred of subtlety vanished to be replaced with highly obvious use of products. For example, Brosnan’s type of car had always been one of the highlights of the film. In Die Another Day, the presence of the painfully named Aston Martin ‘Vanish’ only served as a sales pitch for the Vanquish. Such utterly shameless product placement did reach a crescendo in 2004 where the amount of plugging for Sony and Converse in I, Robot would have made Isaac Asimov turn in his grave. However, such behaviour can shed some light onto the type of post-modern audience that we are evolving in. Those detractors who claim that post-modernism is merely the natural by-product of such a senselessly wasteful society whose mechanisms result in the attempted alienation of anyone showing a shred of individuality. Whether this is true or not is difficult to ascertain but what is lamentable is that the artistic integrity which has existed since Aristotle is being compromised in cinema out of the desire to keep up with television. Thankfully, the presence of adverts in television, even if sometimes the length of advert breaks can be infuriating has meant this has not happened in television’s case. If we evolve in a post-modernist society, then these differing methods of merely pandering to our consumer’s instincts could seem to be a by-product of intense competition between two forms of popular entertainment. Unfortunately, cinema’s rapid changes would lead to renewed controversy over its spectatorship and its impact thereupon as explained by Lynn Spigel. The concept of spectatorship in itself is a fascinating one, not just within the framework of this dissertation, but also within the field of cinema and television research. The bearings that society can have upon an audience’s watching habits are a crucial fact to understanding how individuals, larger target groups or entire demographics will react to any kind of program. (Spigel, 1998) places the birth of the issue of spectatorship in the 70s as film studies began increasing in popularity. This rise in popularity and its link to audience research are vital as we can use them to comprehend not just how an audience would react to a pioneering film or series in either cinema or television but also how it would react to a parody or any kind of wholesale copying of a popular film or series by another medium of entertainment. The issues raised by Spigel are ones, she claims, whose roots lie back in the ideals of Marx and Lacan. From a psycho-analytical perspective, Spigel writes of the complexities of spectatorship research given the psychological aspects behind it. Although Spigel’s thoughts may be questioned in themselves, they do offer conclusive evidence of audience diversity today and how carefully each aspect of this diversity needs to be considered before deciding on scheduling or production. In this, we can see the great precautions television executives must need to take in order to contemplate parodying of any kind of popular film. Modern television, its workings and its impact upon the world Big, brash, loud. Three words which could describe much of the television programmes produced in America in recent years. Long gone is the demure image of the family sitting down to enjoy some good old American-style programming with shows such as Bewitched or I Dream of Jeannie. Let’s face it, if these shows were produced today, they would face some accusations of glorifying witchcraft, yet another practice banned in Leviticus’ long list of gripes against the world. Somehow, the image of ABC being picketed for showing re-runs of Bewitched may at first strike us as absurd but with careful thought, does this seem so unlikely? One of the major problems facing network directors and schedulers is the problems they could face if showing any material seen as even slightly offensive to anybody. We will not engage here in mindless America-bashing but in a country that has long defended the right to free speech, both the film and television industries are being lambasted by religious and family protection groups for promoting violence and pornography. Whilst this could be understood if horror films were shown at hours when children watched TV or if their cartoons professed truly immoral practices but when complaints relate to Elmer Fudd shooting Bugs Bunny, one can wonder if the world has gone crazy. However insane these complaints can appear to be, they are still a startlingly important reality for today’s television. They form one of the biggest pressures on television executives who are caught in a tricky balancing act. They must maintain their audience shares by scheduling popular programming whilst also keeping packs of demented denigrators at bay. Interestingly, regulations concerning the effect of violent or sexual programming have been in place for decades. After all, most channels, even now with the new glut of cable and digital operators, have respected the 9 o’clock watershed before broadcasting any overly offensive material. Have they been secretly breaching rules of moral conduct in recent years? Whilst it is certain that television programmes do have an impact on those who watch them and while children will always care little about rules or regulations that protect them from exposition to negative images, can this be said to be the wholesale fault of the television industry? If the people want games, then games they shall have. This syllogism is one without which television stations cannot operate and although appeals could be made for public decency, violent and pornographic programmes will only be made and shown as long as the public has an interest in them. Thus, society should look to what elements within itself cause television to broadcast this type of programming rather than attack television for it. A recent example that shows just what a level of frenzy has been reached was the 2004 Superbowl. Justin Timberlake and Janet Jackson provided the entertainment when Timberlake ripped off part of Jackson’s outfit, exposing her pierced right breast. Whether the stunt was pre-prepared or not has not been made crystal clear but the furore that surrounded the incident was mind-boggling. The family protection and decency groups went insane, denouncing all film and television workers as Hollywood sleaze. The fact that this slip occurred during an event with global broadcasting and with audiences reaching into the hundreds of millions blew it out of all proportion. For some reason, that a breast had been shown on national television before the watershed was seen as being a massive breach of public decency and as potentially warping the fragile little minds of innocent children. This level of problems goes a long way to showing the tonnage of pressure placed upon television channels. However, it is thankfully a trend that has not seemed to take hold outside the USA. The EU, Japan and Canada are subjected to the same kind of programming and although some complaints are voiced, they never garner so much media attention. Thus, we can see that the manners in which television panders to its audiences vary from country to country. We have highlighted television’s modus operandi in the USA but let us consider a cross-section of Japanese audiovisual entertainment. More than 20% of Japan’s cinematic output and a vast swathe of its popular television programs are made up of anime. Anime cartoons usually contain far more involved storyline than their American counterparts, replete with high levels of violence, sexy and skimpily-clad female characters and yet, these are watched by children of all ages. Does Japan thus see a higher violence rate among young children? No, in fact, the proportion of it is far lower in Japan than it is in the USA. However, even Japanese anime does not make it onto American airwaves without massive cuts by the censorship office. A good example of this is constituted by the popular anime series, Dragonball Z. In it, a group of fighters defend Earth from invasion by evil aliens or androids. Throughout its 250+ episodes, the show contains high levels of violence, including dismembering, decapitation and the beating of children. As can be imagined, when the show was broadcast in America on Cartoon Network, all these passages were cut to spare the minds of our children. However, in Japan, Dragonball Z aired in all its unadulterated gore and no-one seemed the worse for wear. This is not to say that so much violence on TV is good. Indeed, it is lamentable that it should exist at all but it is highly unfair to lay the blame for any consequences at the feet of an industry which is doing its best to keep as many people happy as possible. Although, we have taken a standpoint in attacking America for its high sensitivity when it comes to protecting its children, we have recently been confronted with proof that this type of protest does not only occur in the USA. For ten years, Jerry Springer shocked the nation with its own brand of low chatshow humour. Famed topics of debate involved the KKK, incest and bestiality. It had met with both acclaim and criticism at home, some calling it a true social commentary, other cheap laughter at others’ misfortunes. Anyway, the comedic potential of the idea was soon seen and in 2002, it was turned into a musical named Jerry Springer: The Opera, starring David Soul as Jerry Springer, showing in the West End and on Broadway. Controversy courted it throughout but its great success shouted down these demons. However, in January 2005, the BBC decided to show the musical in its entirety. As soon as this decision was made public, Christian right-wing groups attacked the BBC for insulting Christians when it would not dare the same about Muslims or Jews. While this claim did have some merit, the BBC ignored these claims and broadcast the show at 10 o’clock on a Monday night with clear warning beforehand about the potentially offensive content within it. Examples of this type of occurrence could number in their hundreds but they are an ideal way of investigating how modern audiences identify with television programmes and react to them. One of the basic tenets is that post-modernism is that reactions to any situation are processes created by each individual and that thus, clear definitions of knowledge or art encompassing a group or a society are baseless. In this, it can be argued that the very concept of a post-modern audience is flawed. However, whatever theory we choose to engage with, we cannot reject human nature. In the last twenty years, it seems that many among the generation of young people across America who fought in the 60s and 70s against Vietnam, against the Cold War, for Civil Rights and for many other noble causes have become dangerously jaded. America’s quality of life at the end of the 70s and in the 80s reached a high unseen since the 50s. Although the gap between rich and poor was ever-widening, the lifestyles of the middle and upper classes were prodigious. America was still afflicted with problems in Iran, Central America but the Soviet Block was crumbling and the mood among the general population was good. However, in the 80s and 90s occurred a phenomenon that not many people had truly predicted. The baby-boomers who had so been influential in re-shaping America after World War II were themselves beginning to be required to pass the torch to the next generation. Thus, the norms of society that they had created were themselves being challenged by their children. This shift occurred through the appropriation of traditional American areas of life by the younger generation such as television, cinema, the press as well as the fledgling Internet. We will look in further detail at the emergence of teenagers as a separate marketing entity and the impact of the home video on cinema and television as it entered this confused social maze. (Carberry, 2000) picks up on the popular image of television being viewed as a window on the world. This image, although adequate in some respects, also fails to pay attention to one crucial fact about television. If we look out of a window, we are certain that we will see will be real. A television does not offer this capacity. Television programmes are constructed and even factual news bulletins or documentaries can be edited to look the way the news director wants them to. We know enough of methods of communication to realize the propagandistic power of television and therefore we are conscious that we must always take a step back when rationalizing about something we have seen on television. Television, by its very nature, is as big a construct as cinema however